Alosa pseudoharengus

• Overview
• Common Names
• Description
• Biology
• Taxonomy
• Similar Species
• More Info
• Further Reading
• Notes

Overview

Family : Herrings , shads , sardines , menhadens ; Movement of schooling adults apparently restricted to coastal areas proximal to natal estuaries[1]. They migrate up rivers and even small streams to spawn in lakes and quiet stretches of rivers, then return to sea shortly after spawning[1]; landlocked populations also ascend affluent rivers and streams. Larvae remain in vicinity of spawning grounds , forming schools at sizes less than 10 mm TL , within one to two weeks after hatching [1], then descend in summer and autumn or even as late as November or December. Feed on shrimps and small fishes ; the young on diatoms , copepods and ostracods while in rivers. Utilized fresh, dried or salted, smoked and frozen; eaten fried[2]. Also used for crab and lobster bait and sometimes for pet food[2]. Parasites found are Acanthocephala, cestodes, trematodes and copepods. Overfishing , pollution and impassable dams cause the decline of stocks[3].

Common Names

Click on the language to view common names.

Description

Family Clupeidae

Distribution: global (mostly tropical ) from 70� N to about 60� S. Chiefly marine coastal and schooling fishes ; some freshwater and anadromous . Body usually fusiform , round to strongly compressed . Head without scales ; jaw teeth, when present, are small or minute. A single dorsal fin, small and near midpoint of body; pelvic fins more or less below dorsal fin base ; dorsal and pelvic fins absent in some species; soft rays only. Lateral line spanning a few scales behind the head in some species, missing in others; scales cycloid (smooth to touch); abdominal scutes usually present (a single pelvic scute in the Dussumieriinae). Branchiostegal rays usually 5-10. Most feed on small planktonic animals. Size range (adults ): from 2 to 75 cm. One of the most important family of commercial fishes, processed for food, oil , or fish meal .The family Clupeidae belongs to the Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) and the Order Clupeiformes. It contains 66 genera and 216 species. It may be found in Marine, Brackish , and Freshwater environments and is primarily Marine. Members of this family are not used in the aquarium trade. Reproductively, most members of this family are nonguarders. The main mode of swimming of adult fish in this family is carangiform . Compared with other fish, the activity level of this family tends to be normal. Members of this family have been dated back to the lower Eocene epoch of the Tertiary period. This family may be found from 70° n to 55° s and 180° w to 179° e. Etymology of this family name : Latin, clupea = sardine, derived from Clupeus = shield ; doubtless a reference to the scales covering the body of the fish + Greek, odous = teeth

Physical Description

Habitat

May be found at depths of 5 to 145 meters.

Typically found in water with a depth of -1,138 to 0 meters (-3,734 to 0 feet).[4]

Biome: Fresh water , brackish water, saltwater . Pelagic.

Biology

Migration

Anadromous .

Sound types : swimming noise.

Taxonomy

Unambiguous Synonyms

1. Clupea megalops Rafinesque, 1818
2. Clupea parvula Mitchill, 1814
3. Clupea pseudoharengus Wilson, 1811
4. Clupea vernalis Mitchill, 1815
5. Clupea virescens Dekay, 1842
6. Meletta venosa Valenciennes, 1847
7. Pomolobus pseudoharengus (Wilson, 1811)

Notes

Name Status: Accepted Name . Synonym: Pomolobus pseudoharengus. Latest taxonomic scrutiny: July 24, 1994.

Similar Species

Fish Name Keel Dorsal Fin Rays Anal Fin Rays Mouth/Teeth Gill Rakers Gular Membrane Lateral Line Similarity Index Comments Alewife Scaled, saw-like keel extending from vent forward to isthmus (gill area) Typically 13-14, no elongated rays and origin forward of origin of pelvic rays Typically 17-18 Superior mouth and teeth on jaws weak or absent 41-44 on 1st gill arch Absent Absent, 42-50 scales in lateral series N/A Also moderately similar to deep-bodied shiners of the minnow family (Cyprinella, Luxilus, Notemigonus, Scardinius) Gizzard Shad Saw-like keel Typically 10-12 rays with last ray more than three times longer than adjacent ray and dorsal origin behind pelvic origin Typically 27-34 No teeth on jaws or tongue About 190 on 1st gill arch Absent Absent, 52-70 scales in lateral series Moderately similar Goldeye Fleshy keel, lacking scales and not saw-like Less than 13 rays 29-34 No teeth on jaws or tongue 15-17 Present Present, 57-62 scales in lateral series Moderately similar Mooneye Fleshy keel, lacking scales and not saw-like Less than 13 rays 26-29 No teeth on jaws or tongue 15-17 Present Present, 52-57 scales in lateral series Moderately similar Skipjack Herring Scaled, saw-like keel extending from vent forward to isthmus (gill area) Typically 17, no elongated rays and origin forward of origin of pelvic fins Typically 18 Superior mouth and teeth on jaws and tongue 20-30 on 1st gill arch Absent Absent, 53-60 scales in lateral series Moderately similar

Members of the genus Alosa

There are approximately 109 species in this genus. Here are just 100 of them:

A. aestavalis · A. aestivalis (Blueback Glut Herring) · A. agone (Mediterranean Shad) · A. alabamae (Alabama Shad?names of Fishes 67) · A. alburnus · A. algeriensis · A. alosa (Blueback Glut Herring) · A. alosa alosa (Blueback Glut Herring) · A. alosa bulgarica · A. apicalis · A. argyrochloris · Harengula clupeola · A. braschnikowi (Brazhnikov´s Shad) · A. braschnikowii autumnalis · A. braschnikowii nirchi · A. braschnikowii orientalis · A. braschnikowi braschnikowi (Caspian Marine Shad) · A. braschnikowi sarensis (Caspian Marine Shad) · A. brashnikovi · A. brashnikovi brashnikovi (Caspian Marine Shad) · A. brashnikovi maeotica · A. brevis · A. caspia (Caspian Shad) · A. caspia caspia (Il´men Shad) · A. caspia knipowitschi (Enzeli Shad) · A. caspia nordmanni · A. caspia persica (Astrabad Shad) · A. caspia salina · A. caspia tanaica · A. caspia vistonica · A. chrysochloris (Skipjack Herring) · A. communis · A. cyanonoton · A. elongata · A. fallax (Killarney Shad) · A. fallax algeriensis · A. fallax bolivari · A. fallax fallax (Killarney Shad) · A. fallax killarnensis · A. fallax lacustris · A. fallax nilotica (Mediterranean Shad) · A. fallax rhodanensis · A. fallax subsp. fallax · A. finta · A. finta algeriensis · A. finta killarnensis · A. finta lacustris · A. finta rhodanensis · A. pontica (Kerch Black Sea Shad) · A. kanagurta · A. kessleri (Caspian Anadromous Shad) · A. killarnensis · A. lacustris benacensis · A. lacustris ceresioverbana · A. lacustris lariana · A. lacustrus benacensis · A. lineata · A. macedonica (Macedonia Shad) · A. maeotica (Black Sea Shad) · A. maeotica maeotica · A. malayana · A. mattowacca · A. mediocris (Freshwater Taylor) · A. menhaden · A. fallax subsp. fallax · A. musica · A. nilotica (Mediterranean Shad) · A. ohiensis · A. papalina · A. pectinata · A. pilchardus · A. pontica (Kerch Black Sea Shad) · A. pontica danubii · A. pontica kessleri · A. pontica moriac · A. pontica nigrescens · A. pontica pontica · A. pontica russac · A. praestabilis · A. psendoharengus · A. pseudoharengus (Anadromous Alewives) · A. psuedoharengus · A. reevesii · A. sapadissima · A. sapidisima · A. sapidissima (Connecticut River Shad) · A. sapidissma · A. saposchnikowii (Saposhnikovi Shad) · A. saposhnikovi · A. sardina · Sardinella aurita · A. sp · A. sphaerocephala (Agrakhana Shad) · A. squamopinnata · A. suworowi · A. tanaica (Paeostom Shad) · A. teres · A. toli · A. tyrannus · A. vistonica

More Info

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Further Reading

• A list of common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. Report presented at the eighty-ninth annual meeting, Clearwater, Fla., Sept. 16-18, 1959. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1960. ENG url p. 10.
• Alewife Lake Champlain Basin Program. Identification/Description; Illustrations; Impacts; Habitat; Distribution
• Alewife (PDF | 17 KB) New Jersey Department of Fish and Wildlife. Illustrations; Life Cycle; Habitat
• Alewife - Fish of the Great Lakes Wisconsin Sea Grant. Identification/Description; Photographs; Introduction History; Life Cycle; Habitat; Distribution; Legal Aspects
• Alewife - Introduced Species Summary Project Columbia University. Center for Environmental Research and Conservation. Taxonomy; Identification/Description; Photographs; Introduction History; Impacts; Life Cycle; Habitat; Controls
• Alewife - On-line Fishes of New York State Cornell University. Natural Resources. Identification/Description; Illustrations; Life Cycle; Habitat; Distribution
• Alewife - Species Summary FishBase.org.Taxonomy; Identification/Description; Photographs; Life Cycle; Habitat; Distribution; Dispersion
• Alewife College of William & Mary. Virginia Institute of Marine Science. Fisheries Science. Identification/Description; Illustrations; Habitat; Distribution
• Alewife Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. Environmental Conservation. Water Quality Division. Identification/Description; Photographs; Impacts; Distribution; Controls
• Alosa pseudoharengus (Alewife) Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife.Identification/Description; Photographs; Illustrations; Impacts; Life Cycle
• Alosa pseudoharengus (fish) - ISSG Global Invasive Species Database World Conservation Union. Invasive Species Specialist Group. Identification/Description; Impacts; Habitat; Distribution; Dispersion; Controls
• Alosa pseudoharengus - Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database DOI. USGS. Florida Integrated Science Center. Identification/Description; Illustrations; Introduction History; Impacts; Habitat; Distribution; Special Note: Distribution by county
• Alosa pseudoharengus Article Citation Search - AGRICOLA Database USDA. National Agricultural Library. Research; Special Note: NAL Catalog Search (resources)
• Alosa pseudoharengus Discover Life. Taxonomy; Identification/Description; Photographs; Introduction History; Impacts; Life Cycle; Habitat; Distribution; Dispersion; Controls
• Alternative Strategies for the Management of Non-Indigenous Alewives in Lake St. Catherine, Vermont (Apr 2004; PDF | 504 KB) Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife. Identification/Description; Introduction History; Impacts; Life Cycle; Distribution; Controls
• An ecological characterization of Coastal Maine (north and east of Cape Elizabeth) / Stewart I. Fefer and Patricia S. Schettig: principal investigators. Newton Corner, Mass.: Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northeast Region, 1980. ENG url p. 22, p. 43.
• Aquatic Invasive Species - Alewife (PDF | 68 KB) Indiana Department of Natural Resources. Taxonomy; Identification/Description; Photographs; Introduction History; Impacts; Life Cycle; Habitat; Controls
• Banks, R. C., R. W. McDiarmid, A. L. Gardner, and W. C. Starnes 2003. Checklist of Vertebrates of the United States, the U.S. Territories, and Canada.
• Breviora. Cambridge, Mass., Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. ENG url p. 14.
• Bulletin / Field Museum of Natural History. [Chicago]: The Museum, 1966-1972. ENG url p. 8.
• Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). London: BM(NH) ENG url p. 217, p. 26, p. 90.
• Directory of environmental life scientists / prepared by the Institute of Ecology (TIE) for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Washington: For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1974. ENG url p. 331.
• Distribution and abundance of fishes and invertebrates in Mid- Atlantic estuaries. Silver Spring, Md.: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, 1994- ENG url p. 21, p. 250, p. 251, p. 259, p. 261, p. 4, p. 94, p. 97.
• Ecology of Buzzards Bay: an estuarine profile / by Brian L. Howes and Dale D. Goehringer and Center for Marine Science and Technology, University of Massachusetts; Rebecca J. Howard, project officer. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Biological Service, 1996. ENG url p. 49, p. 50.
• Energy and environmental stress in aquatic systems: selected papers from a symposium held at Augusta, Georgia, November 2-4, 1977 / sponsored by Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Assistant Secretary for Envir [Washington]: Technical Information Center, U.S. Dept. of Energy; 1978. ENG url p. 715, p. 840.
• Eschmeyer, William N., ed. 1998. Catalog of Fishes. Special Publication of the Center for Biodiversity Research and Information, no. 1, vol 1-3. California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco, California, USA. 2905. ISBN: 0-940228-47-5.
• FWS/0BS. [Washington]Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. ENG url p. 20.
• Fish Facts - Alewife DOI. FWS. Connecticut River Coordinator's Office. Identification/Description; Illustrations; Life Cycle; Distribution
• Fish, M.P. and W.H. Mowbray (1970). Sounds of Western North Atlantic fishes. A reference file of biological underwater sounds. The John Hopkins Press, Baltimor.
• Fisheries and fishery resources of New York Bight / J.L. McHugh. [Seattle, WA]: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service; 1977. ENG url p. 8.
• Fishery bulletin / U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. Washington, D.C.: The Service: ENG url p. 1006, p. 1303, p. 141, p. 157, p. 159, p. 161, p. 162, p. 163, p. 164, p. 165, p. 167, p. 168, p. 169, p. 170, p. 199, p. 207, p. 209, p. 210, p. 211, p. 213, p. 338, p. 339, p. 400, p. 401, p. 416, p. 473, p. 484, p. 485, p. 502, p. 509, p. 513, p. 597, p. 612, p. 637, p. 639, p. 639, p. 696, p. 701, p. 71, p. 717, p. 718, p. 72, p. 720, p. 73, p. 75, p. 77, p. 777, p. 789, p. 79, p. 845, p. 895, p. 900, p. 902, p. 905, p. 911, p. 918.
• Fishery bulletin of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, The Service, U.S. Govt Print. Off. ENG url p. 145, p. 150, p. 197, p. 425, p. 490, p. 498, p. 687.
• Fishery circular / U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries. [Washington]: The Bureau, 1931-1939. ENG url p. 1, p. 1, p. 1, p. 103, p. 11, p. 16, p. 2, p. 28, p. 4, p. 4, p. 5, p. 54, p. 8, p. 8, p. 8.
• Fishes of Maine / W. Harry Everhart. Augusta, Me.: Maine Dept. of Inland Fisheries and Game, 1958. ENG url p. 19.
• Food and Agriculture Organization (1992). FAO yearbook 1990. Fishery statistics. Catches and landings. FAO Fish. Ser. (38). FAO Stat. Ser. 70:(105):647 p.
• Frimodt, C. (1995). Multilingual illustrated guide to the world's commercial coldwater fish. Fishing News Books, Osney Mead, Oxford, England. 215 p.
• Global venting, midwater, and benthic ecological processes / Michael P. De Luca and Ivar Babb, editors. [Rockville, Md.]: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, Office of Undersea Research, [1988] ENG url p. 424.
• Hugg, D.O. (1996). MAPFISH georeferenced mapping database. Freshwater and estuarine fishes of North America. Life Science Software. Dennis O. and Steven Hugg, 1278 Turkey Point Road, Edgewater, Maryland, USA.
• Jones, P.W., F.D. Martin and J.D. Hardy, Jr. (1978). Development of fishes of the Mid-Atlantic Bight. An atlas of eggs, larval and juvenile stages. Vol. 1. Acipenseridae through Ictaluridae. U.S. Fish Wildl. Ser. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-78/12. 336 p.
• Journal of shellfish research. [S.l.: National Shellfisheries Association, 1981- url p. 1402.
• Munroe, Thomas, A. / Collette, Bruce B., and Grace Klein-MacPhee, eds. 2002. Herrings: Family Clupeidae. Bigelow and Schroeder's Fishes of the Gulf of Maine, Third Edition. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, USA. 111-160. ISBN: 1-56098-951-3.
• Murdy, Edward O., Ray S. Birdsong, and John A. Musick 1997. Fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, USA. xi + 324. ISBN: 1-56098-638-7.
• NOAA technical report NMFS SSRF. Seattle, Wash.: National Marine Fisheries Service; ENG url p. 1, p. 1, p. 21, p. 3, p. 4, p. 6.
• National overview and evolution of NOAA's Estuarine Living Marine Resources (ELMR) Program / David M. Nelson and Mark E. Monaco. Silver Spring. Md.: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment, 2000. ENG url p. 17, p. 23, p. 29.
• Ontogeny and systematics of fishes: based on an international symposium dedicated to the memory of Elbert Halvor Ahlstrom / sponsored by the National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Dept. of Commer [New York?]: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, c1984. ENG url p. 124, p. 133, p. 697.
• Organizations
• Our living oceans: the first annual report on the status of U.S. living marine resources. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1991. ENG url p. 116.
• Our living resources: a report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems / [edited by], Edward T. LaRoe [et al.]. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Biological Service, 1995. ENG url p. 483.
• Oxygen depletion and associated benthic mortalities in New York Bight, 1976 / editors, R. Lawrence Swanson, Carl J. Sindermann. Rockville, Md.: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; 1979. ENG url p. 298.
• Patterns and perspectives in environmental science: report prepared for the National Science Board, National Science Foundation. [Washington]: The Board: for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1972. ENG url p. 228, p. 229.
• Proceedings of the third USA-USSR symposium on the effects of pollutants upon aquatic ecosystems. Duluth, Minn.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980. ENG url p. 201, p. 77.
• Research on fish and wildlife habitat / technical editor, William T. Mason, consulting editor, Sam Iker. Washington, D.C.Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1982. ENG url p. 66.
• Robins, C.R. and G.C. Ray (1986). A field guide to Atlantic coast fishes of North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, U.S.A. 354 p.
• Robins, Richard C., Reeve M. Bailey, Carl E. Bond, James R. Brooker, Ernest A. Lachner, et al. 1980. A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada, Fourth Edition. American Fisheries Society Special Publication, no. 12. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Maryland, USA. 174.
• Special scientific report. Seattle, National Marine Fisheries Service; for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1949-1971. ENG url p. 1, p. 15, p. 3, p. 44, p. 58.
• Studies of estuarine dependence of Atlantic coastal fishes, by John Clark [and others] Washington, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; [for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off.]1969. ENG url p. 44.
• The Great Basin naturalist. Provo, Utah, M.L. Bean Life Science Museum, Brigham Young University. ENG url p. 148, p. 424, p. 427.
• The Natural History of the River Herrings (Alosa pseudoharengus and Alosa aestivalis) DOI. FWS. Central New England Fishery Resources Office. Introduction History; Habitat
• Threatened wildlife of the United States. Washington, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife [for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off.]1973. ENG url p. 9.
• Whitehead, P.J.P. (1985). FAO species catalogue. Vol. 7. Clupeoid fishes of the world (suborder Clupeioidei). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings, sardines, pilchards, sprats, shads, anchovies and wolf-herrings. Part 1 - Chirocentridae,
• Whitehead, Peter J. P. 1985. Clupeoid Fishes of the World (Suborder Clupeoidei): An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of the Herrings, Sardines, Pilchards, Sprats, Shads, Anchovies and Wolf-herrings: Part 1 - Chirocentridae, Clupeidae and Pristigasteridae. FAO Fisheries Synopsis, no. 125, vol. 7, pt. 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. x + 303. ISBN: 92-5-102340-9.

Notes

Contributors

• Brands, S.J. (comp.) 1989-2006. Systema Naturae 2000. The Taxonomicon. Universal Taxonomic Services, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Accessed April 5, 2007.
• FishBase
• Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Accessed November 22, 2007. http://www.gbif.org Mediated distribution data from 2 providers.
• Lyons, John. WiscFish.org University of Wisconsin, Center for Limnology, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, University of Wisconsin Sea Grant. Provided photos, physical description, and table comparing similar species.
• National Invasive Species Information Center, National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture. Web Site. Accessed May 3, 2008.
• NatureServe. 2003. Downloadable animal data sets. NatureServe Central Databases. Accessed February 6, 2005.

Data Sources

Accessed through GBIF Data Portal March 01, 2008:

• Canadian Museum of Nature: Canadian Museum of Nature Fish Collection
• Cornell University Museum of Vertebrates: Fish Collection
• FishBase: FishBase DiGIR Provider - Philippine Server
• GBIF-Sweden: Fishes (NRM)
• Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University: Atlantic Reference Centre (OBIS Canada)
• Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University: Bay of Fundy Species List (OBIS Canada)
• Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University: Canadian Museum of Nature - Fish Collection (OBIS Canada)
• Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University: DFO Maritimes Research Vessel Trawl Surveys Fish Observations (OBIS Canada)
• Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University: ECNASAP - East Coast North America Strategic Assessment (OBIS Canada)
• Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University: Gulf of Maine Bottom Trawl Survey Data (NEFSC,NMFS,NOAA)(USOBIS)
• Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University: Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History - Marine Birds, Mammals, and Fishes (OBIS Canada)
• Museum national d'histoire naturelle: Ichtyologie
• Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University: MCZ Fish Collection
• Royal Ontario Museum: Fish specimens
• University of Kansas Biodiversity Research Center: Fish Collection

Identifiers

• Biodiversity Heritage Library NamebankID: 2486662
• Catalogue of Life Accepted Name Code: Fis-23334
• Fishbase Species ID: 1583
• Global Biodiversity Information Facility Taxonkey: 13754516
• Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) Taxonomic Serial Number (TSN): 161706
• Natural Heritage Network Species Identifier: AFCFA01050
• Zipcode Zoo Species Identifier: 15651

Footnotes

1. Jones, P.W., F.D. Martin and J.D. Hardy, Jr. (1978). Development of fishes of the Mid-Atlantic Bight. An atlas of eggs, larval and juvenile stages. Vol. 1. Acipenseridae through Ictaluridae. U.S. Fish Wildl. Ser. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-78/12. 33 [back]
2. Frimodt, C. (1995). Multilingual illustrated guide to the world's commercial coldwater fish. Fishing News Books, Osney Mead, Oxford, England. 215 p. [back]
3. Bigelow, H.B., M.G. Bradbury, J.R. Dymond, J.R. Greeley, S.F. Hildebrand, G.W. Mead, R.R. Miller, L.R. Rivas, W.L. Schroeder, R.D. Suttkus and V.D. Vladykov (1963). Fishes of the western North Atlantic. Part three. New Haven, Sears Found. Mar. Res., Y [back]
4. Mean = -22.270 meters (-73.064 feet), Standard Deviation = 84.410 based on 3,791 observations. Ocean depth information for each observation from British Oceanographic Data Centre. [back]

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